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The term “tall building” is not defined in specific terms related to height
or the number of storeys. A building is considered tall when its structural
analysis and design are in some way affected by the lateral loads,
particularly sway caused by such loads [1].
It has always been a human aspiration to create taller and taller structures.
Ancient structures such as the Tower of Babel, Colossus of Rhodes,
the pyramids of Egypt, Mayan temples of Mexico, the Kutub Minar
of India and many more were apparently built as symbols of power.
They were monumental, protected and were infrequently used. Today,
the determining factors for buildings to become higher are mainly the
economic and social factors, although human ego and competition are
still playing a role.
The history of the development of tall buildings can be broadly
classified into three periods. The first period saw the erection of buildings
such as the Reliance Building (Chicago, 1894, Figure 1.1), the Guaranty
Building (Buffalo, 1895, Figure 1.2), and the Carson Pirie Scott
Department Store (Chicago, 1904, Figure 1.3). Most of these buildings
were masonry wall bearing structures with thick and messy walls. The
vertical and lateral loads of these structures were mainly resisted by the
load bearing masonry walls. The 17-storey Manadnock Building (Chicago,
1891, Figure 1.4) for example, was built with 2.13 m thick masonry walls
at the ground level. The area occupied by the walls of this building at the
ground level is 15% of the gross floor area. In addition to reduced floor
area, lightings and ventilations are major problems associated with thick
wall construction.
потом вторая часть In the second period, with the evolution of steel structures, and sophisticated
services such as mechanical lifts and ventilation, limitations on the
height of buildings were removed. The demand for tall buildings increased
in this period as corporations recognised the advertising and publicity
advantages of connecting their names with imposing high-rise office
buildings. It was also seen as sound financial investment as it could generate
high rental income. The race for tallness commenced with a focus on Chicago
and New York. Among the more famous buildings evolved during the
period were the Woolworth Building (New York, 1930, Figure 1.5) and
the Chrysler Building (New York, 1930, Figure 1.6). The race ended with
the construction of the Empire State Building (New York, 1931, Figure
1.7) which, measuring 381 m with the television antenna, was the tallest
structure until 1970 [2–6].
Reinforced concrete established its own identity in the 1950’s into
the third period which is now regarded as modernism in construction
history. In contrast to the previous periods, where architectural emphasis
was on external dressing and historical style, the third period placed
emphasis on (a) reasons (b) functional and (c) technological facts [7, 8].
This new generation of buildings evolved from World Trade Center (New
York, 1972–2001, Figure 1.8), Sears Tower (Chicago, 1974, Figure 1.9),
Petronas Towers (Kuala Lumpur, 1996, Figure 1.10), Taipei 101 (Taipei,
2004, Figure 1.11), to Burj Dubai (Dubai, 2009, Figure 1.12).
The amount of materials needed in a tall building for the resistance of
gravity load is almost linear with its height. However, the same materials
needed for the resistance of lateral load (mainly wind load) increases as
the square of the wind speed. The Sears Tower (Figure 1.9) which is about
twice as tall as the Woolworth Building (Figure 1.5) has to resist wind
effects four times as large as those on the Woolworth Building [9]. The
third period of tall buildings saw the transition of structural systems
from rigid frame to more efficient structural systems [9, 10]. The concept
of channelling the gravity and wind loads using two or more separate